Aristotle: Greek philosopher, 5th C. BC: Politics
Types of Government context of Greek city state (polis)
Good forms: Corrupted forms:
(aim for common good) (power for one group)
Monarchy Tyranny
(rule of one)
Aristocracy Oligarchy
(rule of the best) (rule of the few)
Democracy  Anarchy
(rule of the people)    (lack of any rule)        

Republican Rome  509 BC-44 BC
res publica = public matter reclaimed from King
republic expands, conquering an empire

Decline of the Republic 2cd-1st C BC  (today)
       rise of military power, armies loyal to commander

careers of Marius, Sulla, Pompey and Caesar (d. 44 BC)

ROMAN FAMILY

PATERFAMILIAS:
       oldest male with extensive powers over all others
PATRIA POTESTAS:
power or authority of the father over family

GENS (sing.), GENTES (plural) = people,  group of families
        refers to kinship group, common ancestor of patricians

NAMES:      Personal             Gens                Family
Example:         Gaius              Julius               Caesar

Women: no personal name;
named for Gens (eg Julia Secunda)

PATRONAGE: patron client relationships in politics: vertical social ties

Government Offices in Republican Rome: competition for office

MAGISTRATES executive branch, office holders
elected but unpaid = only wealthy can compete
Consuls: two, elected annually
symbols: toga praetexta (purple stripe); 12 lictors carrying fasces
limits on authority within pomerium (sacred boundary)
axes removed from fasces within city of Rome
military role of consuls: elected in March (Mars) begin new campaign in spring
traditional limit on re-election – no consecutive terms, dislike for multiple terms

Praetor: official who takes over in Rome when consuls were absent on campaign, only two lictors.
Tribunes of the people (plebs): power to block public actions seen as unlawful,
defend citizens from arbitrary actions of magistrates
Censors: the only office that was not annual: up to two years.
compile list of Senators, rank all citizens into centuries
Census: conducted every five years; based on property, reputation,
begins as military assignment system; held in Campus Martius
cavalry (equites): wealthiest assigned to highest centuries
infantry: other eligible citizens
proletariat: assigned to one, lowest century

Assemblies of citizens:
Assembly of Plebs: elect Tribunes of the People
Centuriate Assembly:
censors assign citizens to centuries; according to income and status
adult male Roman citizens who vote directly
choose new office holders and approve public actions
limited power: called by consuls, praetors or tribunes
meet only at Rome (one day); citizens cannot speak, vote yes or no
Late Republic: growth of bribery, buying votes

Republic: competition for office, fame, glory, dignitas:
Quintus Metellus: 221 BC funeral oration for his father Lucius Metellus in
: held offices of pontifex, consul, dictator, triumph during first Punic War
“His father accomplished the ten greatest and best feats which wise men seek in their lifetime.
He wished to be the top warrior, the best orator, the bravest commander, to personally direct the
great affairs of state, to have the highest honor, to be the most wise, to be esteemed the most
distinguished senator, to acquire immense wealth in a good way, to leave many children, and
to be the most celebrated figure in the city. It fell to him to achieve all this, and no one else
since Rome’s foundation had been his match.”

ROMAN ARMY: citizen army, property qualification
PROLETARIAT: insufficient wealth for army service; proles = offspring, children
CONSCRIPTION: all eligible men from age 17-46 juniores (serve in foreign wars)
                                            46-60 seniores (defend city of Rome)

length of service: 16-20 military campaigns
SACRAMENTUM: Oath of loyalty: called (sacred service)

Discipline: fines, flogging, bastinado, decimation; commanders possess imperium: power of life & death

Growth of Roman army
Punic Wars population estimates for 225 BC
Roman Italy free population 2,750,000
Roman citizens & families 900,000
adult male citizens (all ages) 300,000
juniores only (under 46) 205,000
Army mobilized 108,000 = 35% of adult men
50,000+ male citizens die in wars
after Punic Wars: 10% of male population under arms, 20% in crises
2cd C. BC: Shortages of manpower as Rome expands
107 BC: proletariat enrolled in army for first time (Marius)
1st C. BC: professionalization of army: rise of charismatic military leaders

POPULAR MILITARY LEADERS threats from north Africa and Germany

GAIUS MARIUS: homo novus = new man, not from elite, military leader in Africa, later in

Consul 107: proletariat allowed in army  for first time; goal of war booty, land grants

105-100 re-elected consul annually; again in 87-- total of seven terms

Injection of army into politics:
as consul Marius uses veterans to manipulate votes in Rome on land grants

LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA: personal rival of Marius
Roman senatorial family, Consul in 88BC

military leader in war: Africa, Germany Roman allies (Social War)
commission in Asia against Mithridates revoked (Marius’ doing)

MARCHING ON ROME: 1st C. BC

FIRST CIVIL WAR: Marius versus Sulla

88 BC Sulla’s 1st march on Rome, proscription of enemies

87 Marius conquers Rome, made consul for 7th time (then dies)
83 Sulla’s 2cd march on Rome: aid of Pompey, Crassus
500 + enemies proscribed and executed

SULLA as DICTATOR: 82-79       reforms to strengthen republic
SENATE: size doubled to 600; suppression of powers of tribunes (no higher office)

CURSUS HONORUM as fixed succession of offices with pre-requisites, age requirements

Patricians: start as  
Quaestor (20) in charge of supplies, grain
Aedile (2) in charge of buildings
Praetor (8) judicial office age 39
Consul (2) highest post age 42
Censor (2)  former consuls
supervise public morality
Dictator = Sulla & Caesar    (originally emergencies only; not on the regular program)
Plebians: start as Tribune of the People, then Aedile and Praetor

1ST C. BC “EXTRAORDINARY” MILITARY COMMANDS
undermine republican structures; generals unite against the Senate
POMPEY the GREAT: father homo novus, dies in Marius’ siege of Rome
Pompey supports Sulla; commands armies in Spain, Asia, Africa
81 BC victory in north Africa: demands triumph (not yet consul, under age)
67 campaign against pirates in eastern Mediterranean
66-63 campaign against Mithridates, King of Pontus (Black Sea)

CRASSUS: 72 BC military command to suppress
SPARTACUS’ SLAVE REVOLT 73-71 aid of Pompey
POMPEY AND CRASSUS as CONSULS 70 BC – age issue (P = 35)
restoration of powers of tribunes, but also rivals

POMPEY THE GREAT: 61 return from east, triumph, riches
disbands his army; goal of resettling his veterans

building of theater of Pompey dedicated in 51 BC
first stone theater in Rome; “disguised” as Temple of Venus

allies with OPTIMATES (wealthy) against POPULARES

but also allies with rival generals: Crassus and Caesar

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO orator & lawyer of late Republic
Consul 63 BC: defeats two nobles; homo novus = 1st of family in Senate
defender of role of Senate against Pompey, Caesar
43 BC assassinated in civil war following death of Caesar

JULIUS CAESAR: old family, out of power

Career: rises as military leader of Populares (popular party)
elected PONTIFEX MAXIMUS 63 BC
PRAETOR 62 (debts incurred for bribery for elections)
appointed GOVERNOR OF SPAIN: immune to charges while in office

FIRST TRIUMVIRATE: 60 BC  Pompey, Crassus and Caesar
informal political secret agreement: work together against Senate
POMPEY marries Julia, Caesar’s daughter, command in Spain
CAESAR given 5 year command in Gaul and Illyricum
CRASSUS: dies in command of army in Syria against Parthia
defeat of army, loss of the legion’s standards

59 BC CAESAR as CONSUL: grants land to Pompey’s veterans;
opposition of Senate; takes issue to assemblies,
violence erupts, proposal passes with aid of Pompey’s veterans

CAESAR’S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL 58-51 and ITALY 49-45 BC
writes Commentaries circulated in Rome: Gallic Wars
“All Gaul is divided into three parts….”
conquest of Helvetii (Swiss), northern tribes
Vercingetorix: leader of Arverni, revolt against Caesar
estimate of one million Gauls killed, one million slaves

52 POMPEY made sole Consul in Rome due to violence, burning of Senate
legislation against Consuls taking command after term
personal threat to Caesar, charges due to earlier bribery
end of triumvirate, now Pompey, Senate, Cicero vs Caesar

MARCH ON ROME: SECOND CIVIL WAR: (first is Marius versus Sulla)

49 CAESAR CROSSES THE RUBICON January 10
leads army into Italy across Rubicon, border of Cisapline Gaul
decision: Alea iacta est “The die is cast.”

CAESARS’ WARS 49-44

Spain: armies there loyal to Pompey

East: Pompey raises army in Greece: defeat at Pharsalus
Pompey flees to Egypt, killed

Egypt: 47 Caesar conquers kingdom, affair with Cleopatra, son Cesarion

East: defeats successor of Mithridates:Veni, vidi, vici: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

Spain: Pompey’s sons: 300,000 killed, returns to Rome

Parthia: plans to leave for Asia in March 44

CAESAR IN ROME: Dictator: 49, holds office of Consul as well
46 Cleopatra comes to Rome with son Cesarion
44 Dictator for Life: “perpetual dictator”
Social problems: veterans settled overseas, debts (interest cancelled)
Calendar: adopts Egyptian solar calendar = Julian calendar
Public buildings: Curia Julia – new Senate house in Forum, Senate expanded to 900
Forum of Julius Caesar
Senatorial honors: first living Emperor on coins; temple to Divus Julius (Caesar as god)

Assassination of Caesar in Theater of Pompey 44 BC Ides of March (March 15th)

MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS, CASSIUS and other Senators

Brutus:   descent from first Brutus,  509BC: defender of role of Senate and Republic